Tariff and non tariff trade barriers

Tariff and non tariff trade barriers INTRODUCTION Despite all the evident benefits of international trade, governments have a tendency to put up trade barriers to protect the domestic industry. There are two kinds of barriers: tariff and non-tariff. Tariff Barriers Tariff is a tax levied on goods traded internationally, that is on imports. As a result, the price level of imported products rises and the demand for them decrease, thus imports are less. Non-tariff Barriers Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs) include all the rules, regulations and bureaucratic delays that help in keeping foreign goods out of the domestic markets. Baldwin  [1]  defined a non-tariff distortion as any measure (public or private) that causes internationally traded goods and services, or resources devoted to the production of these goods and services, to be allocated in such a way as to reduce potential real world income. The WTO After the World War II, many countries focused on protecting home industries. So, international trade was hampered by severe trade restrictions. To remedy this situation, twenty-three nations joined together in 1947 and signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which stimulated free trade by regulating and lowering tariffs. The work of GATT is sustained by the World Trade Organization (WTO) which encourages global commerce and reduces trade barriers. Tariffs on goods and services have been reduced to low levels through eight successive rounds of the WTO; still there has been a significant increase of Non-Tariff Measurements which are seriously hindering trade. Countries use many mechanisms to restrict imports. NTBs have gained importance as tariff levels have been reduced worldwide. They are the greatest single threat to a liberal world trading system and they are becoming more widespread: the percentage of industrial countries total imports subject to NTBs rose from 25% in 1981 to 27% in 1983 and they are even higher today. NTBs are therefore one of the most important issues in the round of international trade negotiations. TYPES OF NON-TARIFF BARRIERS Non- Tariff Barriers to trade can be categorized in six types: Specific Limitations on Trade: Quota shares A quota is a restriction in value or in physical terms, imposed on import and export of certain goods for a certain period of time. For example, the US has imposed a quota on textiles imported from India and other countries. Import licenses/ Restrictive licenses Import licensing can be defined as administrative procedures requiring the submission of an application or other documentation, other than those required for customs purposes, to the relevant administrative body as a prior condition for importation of goods  [2]  . For example, in Washington, cheese and cheese products are subject to the requirements of the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of Agriculture and most importations of cheese require an import license and are subject to quotas administered by the Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service  [3]  . In Mauritius, pesticides require import licence from the Ministry of Health, arms and ammunitions require import permit from the police and many others.  [4]   Exchange controls This is monitoring the amount of foreign exchange available to residents for purchasing foreign goods domestically or while travelling abroad is another way of restricting imports. Foreign exchange restrictions and foreign exchange controls occupy a special place among the non-tariff regulatory instruments of foreign economic activity. Foreign exchange restrictions constitute the regulation of transactions of residents and nonresidents with currency and other currency values. Import bans/ limitations This is a government order forbidding imports of a specific kind or from a particular country. For example, in order to protect the domestic manufacturers against cheap competition from the neighboring country, the government of India imposed ban on the import of Chinese toys. Moreover, many countries, like for example India, have impose a ban on food imports from Japan fearing contamination. Furthermore following a milk scandal that led to the widespread poisoning of babies in China, India banned the import of milk and milk products from China. Embargoes Embargo is a particular type of quotas prohibiting the trade, in other words, when imports from a specific country are totally banned. It is mostly put in place due to political reasons. For example, the United Nations imposed an embargo on trade with Iraq as a part of economic sanctions in 1990. Customs and Administrative Entry Procedures Customs Valuation There is a commonly held view that the invoice values of goods traded internationally do not reflect their real cost. This gave rise to a very subjective system of valuation of imports and exports for levy of duty. If the value ascribed to a particular product would turn out to be considerably higher than its real cost, it could end in affecting its competitiveness by increasing the total cost to the importer due to the excess duty. This would hence act as a barrier to international trade. Antidumping practice If a company exports a product at a price lower than the price it normally charges on its own home market, it is said to be dumping the product. Antidumping is prohibiting a country to dump, that is, to export goods at usual lower prices. Documentation requirements This is when complicated and unnecessary documentation requirements are asked by the importing countries. In Mauritius, according to the Mauritius chamber of commerce and Industry of Mauritius, these imports documents are required; invoice, showing the FOB and CIF value of goods; packaging lists; bill of lading; bill of entry; and where applicable; insurance certificate, certificate of inspection, certificate of origin and imports permits  [5]  . Rules of origin Determining where a product comes from is no longer easy when raw materials and parts across the globe are used as inputs in the manufacturing plants. Rules of origin are important in implementing such trade policy instruments as anti-dumping and countervailing duties, origin marking, and safeguard measures. Technical barriers to trade Technical Barriers Countries generally specify some quality standards to be met by imported goods for various health, welfare and safety reasons. In Mauritius, rice (imported by traders other than the State Trading Corporation) should not exceed 10% broken rice, bakery additives shall not contain potassium bromate as an ingredient  [6]  , etc. This facility can be misused for blocking the import of certain goods from specific countries by setting up of such standards, which deliberately exclude these products. The process is further complicated by the requirement that testing and certification of the products regarding their meeting the set standards be done only in the importing country. The Precautionary Principle The precautionary principle, is a government restrictions on trade in the context of environmental and health concerns, often regardless of cost or scientific evidence. The precautionary principle has been interpreted by some to mean that new chemicals and technologies should be considered dangerous until proven otherwise. It therefore requires those responsible for an activity or process to establish its harmlessness and to be liable if damage occurs. Sanitary and phyto-sanitary conditions This is a restriction on imports from certain places in order to protect consumers, the environment, or agriculture from harmful diseases or pests that may accompany the imported product. For instance, in Mauritius, agricultural goods require a phytosanitary certificate from the ministry of Agriculture, prepared foods, drugs, and chemicals with potential adverse effects on health require phytosanitary certificate from the Ministry of Health.  [7]   Packaging conditions, labeling conditions and product standards. Countries usually impose standards on classification, labeling and testing of products in order to be able to sell domestic products, but also to block sales of products of foreign manufacture. These standards are occasionally entered under the excuse of protecting the safety and health of local populations. In Mauritius, the establishment in charge for the control of standards mainly for food and other items is the Mauritius Standards Bureau. In addition, European exporters and investors are facing an increasing number of unjustifiable non-tariff barriers in the form of product certification, labeling standards, import approval requirements and customs clearance delays. Also, many of the Chinese standards such as the CCC standard require certification by the Chinese authorities before a product can be put on the Chinese market. Important information has to be submitted and the factory has often to be inspected at the expense of the exporter. Government Participation in Trade Complex regulatory environment Some countries have complex regulatory framework, for e.g. complex business registration and license, and thus this hamper free trade. For instance, rules recently enacted in China, prohibit European financial information agencies and operators to sell directly their services customers in China. Government procurement policies This is another type of NTB where governments pretty frequently follow the policy of procuring their requirements (including that of government-owned companies) only from local producers, or at least extend some price advantage to them. This closes a big potential market to the foreign producers. Subsidies to Local Goods This occurs when governments directly or indirectly subsidize local production in an effort to make it more competitive in the domestic and foreign markets. For example, tax benefits may be extended to a firm producing in a certain part of the country to reduce regional imbalances, or duty drawbacks may be allowed for exported goods, or, as an extreme case, local firms may be given direct subsidies to enable them to sell their goods at a lower price than foreign firms. Countervailing duties This is a duty placed on imported goods that are being subsidized by the importing government. This helps to even the playing field between the domestic producers and the foreign producers receiving subsidies. Buy national policy This is a policy hosted by the government to help the national economy. For instance, in 2009, the Paraguayan Finance Ministry specified changes to public procurement policy in relation to the national stimulus plan. That is, public bodies that seek to spend money from the stimulus money are to give preference to national goods and services. More specifically, domestic goods shall receive a preferential margin of 70 percent over imported products. In terms of labor, the announcement declares that at least 70 percent of the labor involved in stimulus projects shall come from local employees living in the territory of the contracting public authority. Charges on imports Variable import levy A  variable import levy  is a  levy  on imports that raises their price to a level at least as high as the domestic price. Such levies are adjusted frequently in response to changes in world market prices, and are imposed to defend administered prices set above world market prices. Under the  Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, the variable levies of the EU have been converted into fixed tariffs or tariff-rate quotas. Border taxes It is a tax system for imports and exports, especially one that compensates for internal taxes in Common Market countries by levying fees or paying rebates. Others Voluntary Export Restraints This is an act of limiting exports. It happens when a country facing a persistent huge trade deficit against another country pressurized the latter to adhere to a self-imposed limit on the exports. For instance, after facing consistent trade deficits over a number of years with Japan, the US persuaded it to impose such limits on itself. Direct and Indirect Restrictions on Foreign Investments A country may directly restrict foreign investment to some specific sectors or up to a certain percentage of equity. Indirect restrictions may come in the form of limits on profits that can be repatriated or prohibition of payment of royalty to a foreign parent company. These restrictions discourage foreign producers from setting up domestic operations. Foreign companies are generally interested in setting up local operations when they foresee increased sales or reduced costs as a consequence. Thus, restrictions against foreign investments add impediments to international trade by giving rise to inefficiencies. PROBLEMS CAUSE BY NTBs The reduction of tariffs in progressive rounds of trade liberalization at the multilateral and regional levels has been mirrored by the rise to prominence of NTBs. NTBs for instance specific limitations on trade and charges on imports such as quotas, import ban and so on, will directly affect trade negatively as they will impact on exporting countries by decreasing or prohibition their exports. Although embargo is usually introduced for political purposes, the consequences, in essence, could be economic. This decrease or ban in exports, if it was of an important quantity/ value, will create serious economic catastrophe for the exporting countries and may result in Balance of Payments deficiency, a decrease in GDP, an increase in the level of unemployment and if nothing is done to remedy the situation, the country can go in a recession. NTBs in the customs and administration entry procedures category and in the standards category do not directly hamper free trade but they add to business cost. These testing procedures being expensive, time consuming and cumbersome to the exporters, act as a trade barrier. This will eventually raise their costs, leading to higher prices thus making them less competitive at international level, and small and medium enterprises may be discouraged to export. A vivid example is in Iran where  NTBs negatively impact on the trade of pistachio and shrimp products. The most important reasons for the reduced export of these products are Sanitary Phyto-Sanitary (SPS) and Technical Barriers (TB). According to WTO rules, countries are allowed to adopt regulations under the SPS and TB agreements in order to protect human, animal and plant health as well as the environment, wildlife and human safety.  [8]   However, by imposing NTBs, both counties will lose, that is, the country which imposes the NTMs also loses. This can be demonstrated by the following facts: for instance, Japanese consumers pay five times the world price for rice because of import restrictions protecting Japanese farmers. American consumers also suffer from the same double burden, paying six times the world price for sugar because of trade restrictions. Hence, allowing free trade in a way will benefit everyone. European consumers pay dearly for restrictions on food imports and heavy taxes for domestic farm subsidies.  [9]   HOW TO REDUCE NTBS The action should start from the top, that is, from the WTO itself. The WTO has already reached some agreements like the Anti-dumping Agreement, SPS agreements, technical barriers agreements and many other agreements. Moreover, RTAs is the first step to reduce NTBs, as it is easier to get the consensus of all an RTA members on a matter that the consensus of all the WTO members. In addition, RTAs normally constitute of country members with a similar/ more or less the same economic background. For instance, in ASEAN, most members are from developing countries while EU has members from developed countries. As a result, removing NTBs will benefits all the members equivalently. For example, there has already been an agreement on the general features of the process for eliminating NTBs in ASEAN. The process Involves, verification of information on NTBs, prioritisation of products/NTBs, developing specific work programmes, and obtaining a mandate from the ASEAN Economic Ministers to implement the work programme.  [10]   In addition, different RTAs have different methods of reducing NTMs. Such as, the Working Party on Regulatory Cooperation and Standardization Policies aims at building a shared regulatory framework and at achieving greater security for consumers and workers, better protection for the environment and reduced cost for international trade.  [11]  They also developed standards for agricultural produce that define minimum quality requirements in order to facilitate the trading process. CONCLUSION Free trade, will surely benefits many countries. Thus in order to allow trade to occur freely, tariffs as well as non-tariff barriers need to be reduced. However, sometimes for safety reasons, some NTMs are required. For instance the import ban on food from Japan is necessary in order to avoid the proliferation of the radioactive contamination. Thus some trade restrictions may be necessary for countries to ensure the safety of the food supply and the health of plants, animals and the environment. However, sometimes governments go beyond what is necessary to protect domestic industries.   Moreover, free trade can increase the poverty gap. This is so because developing countries and LDCs will not be able to compete with developed countries and multinationals may implant themselves in the LDCs just to reap the benefit of cheap labour and resources and does not contribute more to the development of those LDCs.

One Day In The Life Of Ivan Denisovich English Literature Essay

One Day In The Life Of Ivan Denisovich English Literature Essay One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich is a gripping, insightful description of a reality that may now seem inconceivable to us, so distant from our perception of human rights and individual freedom. It reveals the awful labor and concentration camps that emerged in Europe throughout the first half of the twentieth century. The novel displays a disgraceful period in Russian history and a psychological examination of the vital survival methods in such circumstances. The novel consists of a single day in January 1951 through the eyes of the protagonist, Ivan Denisovich Shukhov, who is in the eighth year of a total of ten-year sentence. The Russian culture raises the novel through the creation of a very insipid setting on which Ivan Denisovichs daily routine is realistically outlined. In this essay I will be explaining how the novel serves as a means to comprehend the Russian culture it was built upon. The characters, themes, and plot are all linked with the Russian cultural background. The central theme is the oppression the characters are confronted with on a daily basis. Consequently, the plot also incorporates oppression such as ill treatment from the superior. The tempo of the plot is monotonous and the Russian culture sets a raw and cold tone. The camp and dreadful labor hours imposed by the soviet government slows down the characters time, causing the plot, which is exclusively Ivans style and routine, to be tedious. The prison camps integrate traits of Russian sternness, controlling military workforce, poor facilities, and deprived living conditions all of which harm Ivan. The Soviet wardens abuse the prisoners for their own advantage and their power-driven ego. Ivans controlling surroundings both harm and agonize him as an individual. Principal examples of cultural influences are the mindsets of the protagonist. Culture has an impact on the relatively enervated behavior of the protagonist by establishing boundaries that cripple their inner desires. Ivans conduct during his sentence in the Siberian work camp reveals the culture from which he was raised. He is modest, cooperative, eager and skillful at all times. He is not violent or dishonest towards others, rather he recognizes his fate hoping to be liberated, surviving day by day. The Russian culture at the time, a state in which the masses were controlled and where life felt repetitive, shapes the foundation of Ivans way of being. The culture has a great impact on the conduct of the protagonist, causing him to fall in line and obey to the oppressors requests.   Russian culture in that era was awfully harsh and it was concerned with restraining and controlling its nation.  A quote expressing the essence of a strong mentality to get through the day; The ones that dont make it are those who lick other mens leftovers, those who count on the doctors to pull  them through, and those who squeal on their buddies.  [2]  An illustration of the harsh conditions the prisoners had to endure is when they were ordered to construct a power station, although it was exceptionally cold and the mortar used for bricklaying would freeze if not applied rapidly. Regulations stated that the men would only be excused if the temperature dropped below -41 °C. The suffering faced by the zeks were things such as the severity of the weather, their inadequate clothing and their food which consisted of black bread, porridge and water-based cabbage soup. They were also persecuted by the guards, who are fixated on enforcing insignificant regulations. However, Solzh enitsyn reminds us that the guards attitude stems primarily from their own bitterness at the firm conditions and at the callous discipline imposed upon them. If any of the prisoners succeeded in escaping, the guards accountable would be enforced to take their places in the camp.   The novel is a literary work in which food in association with culture is a major part of the setting. Observation of a cultures behavior towards food and during mealtimes supplies significant insight into the cultures nature. Eating is a fairly animalistic part of humanity as well as the center for social gathering. Due to its scarcity, food is the utmost motivator for the prisoners. A quote illustrating the importance of food to the prisoners; Apart from sleep, the only time a prisoner lives for himself is ten minutes in the morning at breakfast, five minutes over dinner, and five at supper.  [3]  Ã‚   In prison life there is vast evidence of social influence and customs on the manner the prisoners dine. Social influence can be identified in the manner in which higher-ranking and harder-working prisoners obtain more food. The quantity of food consumed is a good indicator of class within the prisoners. Those of higher status obtain portions with more calories, while the majority gets soup consisting mostly of water. A representation of social customs is when the protagonist is unable to eat with his hat still on. Although he is uncomfortably cold without it on, his Russian upbringing stops him from covering his head while eating. Another example is when the old veteran takes a portion of cloth and uses it as a place-mat while he eats his meals. Their habits were made before they became prisoners, when they still lived in their Soviet state of origin. The novel  is to some extent, Solzhenitsyn relating to his own experiences when as a captain in the Soviet army, he was arrested in 1945 for making offensive remarks about Stalin and spent the next eight years in different camps. The closing time of his captivity took place in a camp for political prisoners in Kazakhstan, which is generally considered to be the setting for the novel. It was one of the first novels of the post-Stalin age to express to an international distribution the knowledge of political imprisonment and oppression under the rà ©gime. Solzhenitsyn never criticizes the Communist system in the novel; if he would have done so, the novel would have certainly been banned. He purely offers a description of what life was like in the camps, but in the long run his prose was to prove as harmful to the system as any intensification of political expression. After reading, one is left in no doubt with the horror of the life in Siberias camps, and also with the authors perso nal judgment of the condition of the land of his birth during that period. It lets you partake in the struggle of men to survive the awful rigors of nature and the cruelty of the system that describes their conditions of life. Classic Russian  literature incorporates certain essential characteristics of the soviet culture. During a period when the  Soviet Union was under the leadership of  Joseph Stalin, it was intricate to write novels that expressed the social climate. The cultural climate in the  Soviet Union  at this time was rough; conveying your opinion was often not only tricky, but risky. Forced  labor camps  came about and innocent citizens were put in jail for political and social crimes that they usually did not commit. Another regular characteristic of classic Russian literature was that authors tended to make the reader experience as if they were within the thoughts of the protagonist. Although the novel  is written in third person, the readers feels as if they are seeing and experiencing the protagonists day through his eyes. In conclusion, our cultural environment influences both our personality and our development as a human being. The novel shows us that even in our most desperate moments, when our environment forces us to strip away our identity and individuality, our social customs and cultural influences still take place. An individual who is brought up in a culture with customs that would be considered extreme by others will have unlike values from a society who was never exposed to such things. In One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, their social customs is what allows them to keep stable and sane as an individual in such harsh circumstances influenced by the Russian culture. The novel presents a horrible yet significant period in Russian history where cultural influence plays a significant role in which the characters utilize day by day.

Character in Katherine Anne Porters The Jilting of Granny Weatherall :: The Jilting of Granny Weatherall

Character in Katherine Anne Porter's â€Å"The Jilting of Granny Weatherall† â€Å"The Jilting of Granny Weatherall,† a short story by Katherine Anne Porter, describes the last thoughts, feelings, and memories of an elderly woman. As Granny Weatherall’s life literally â€Å"flashes† before her eyes, the importance of the title of the story becomes obvious. Granny Weatherall has been in some way deceived or disappointed in every love relationship of her life. Her past lover George, husband John, daughter Cornelia, and God all did an injustice by what Porter refers to as â€Å"jilting.† This unending cycle of wrongdoing caused Granny to be a mixture of strength, bitterness, and ultimate fear as she faces her last moments in life. Granny gained her strength by the people that she felt jilted by. George stood Granny up at the altar. He never showed at all and it is never stated that she heard from him again. The pain forced Granny to be strong as is proven by her thoughts when she is asked if anything could be done for her. â€Å" I want you to find George. Find him and be sure to tell him I forgot him. I want him to know I had my husband just the same and my children and my house like any other woman†¦ Tell him I was given back everything he took away and more† (Porter 584). Granny did marry a man named John, but her strength was again tested when he died at a young age, leaving her to raise their children on her own. â€Å"Sometimes she wanted to see John again and point to them and say, well, I didn’t do so badly did I?† (582). She had been strong enough to carry the burden of two lost loves and raise good children at the same time. It was one of these children, Cornelia, who made her act somewhat bitterly in her last days. With her daughter whispering about her and saying she should be humored at her old age, Granny felt like she had been in some way betrayed. â€Å"It was strange about children. They disputed your every word† (584). She felt like Cornelia was treating her like a child. â€Å"The thing that most annoyed her was that Cornelia thought she was deaf, dumb, and blind. Little hasty glances and tiny gestures tossed around her and over her head saying, ‘Don’t cross her, let her have her way, she’s eighty years old,’ and she sitting there as if she lived in a thick glass cage† (582). Character in Katherine Anne Porter's The Jilting of Granny Weatherall :: The Jilting of Granny Weatherall Character in Katherine Anne Porter's â€Å"The Jilting of Granny Weatherall† â€Å"The Jilting of Granny Weatherall,† a short story by Katherine Anne Porter, describes the last thoughts, feelings, and memories of an elderly woman. As Granny Weatherall’s life literally â€Å"flashes† before her eyes, the importance of the title of the story becomes obvious. Granny Weatherall has been in some way deceived or disappointed in every love relationship of her life. Her past lover George, husband John, daughter Cornelia, and God all did an injustice by what Porter refers to as â€Å"jilting.† This unending cycle of wrongdoing caused Granny to be a mixture of strength, bitterness, and ultimate fear as she faces her last moments in life. Granny gained her strength by the people that she felt jilted by. George stood Granny up at the altar. He never showed at all and it is never stated that she heard from him again. The pain forced Granny to be strong as is proven by her thoughts when she is asked if anything could be done for her. â€Å" I want you to find George. Find him and be sure to tell him I forgot him. I want him to know I had my husband just the same and my children and my house like any other woman†¦ Tell him I was given back everything he took away and more† (Porter 584). Granny did marry a man named John, but her strength was again tested when he died at a young age, leaving her to raise their children on her own. â€Å"Sometimes she wanted to see John again and point to them and say, well, I didn’t do so badly did I?† (582). She had been strong enough to carry the burden of two lost loves and raise good children at the same time. It was one of these children, Cornelia, who made her act somewhat bitterly in her last days. With her daughter whispering about her and saying she should be humored at her old age, Granny felt like she had been in some way betrayed. â€Å"It was strange about children. They disputed your every word† (584). She felt like Cornelia was treating her like a child. â€Å"The thing that most annoyed her was that Cornelia thought she was deaf, dumb, and blind. Little hasty glances and tiny gestures tossed around her and over her head saying, ‘Don’t cross her, let her have her way, she’s eighty years old,’ and she sitting there as if she lived in a thick glass cage† (582).

radio-imaging effectiveness :: essays research papers

Radiation can be used in both diagnosis and therapeutic manners. The radiation emitted from radioisotopes can destroy tissue and in the therapeutic use: the destruction of cancerous and other dangerous tissues. And with diagnosis the gamma particle pass through the body tissues with minimal damage to a gamma camera. To evaluate the effectiveness of PET, SPECT, MRI and X-rays, we first need some basic knowledge on how each of them work. PET stands for positron emission tomography and works by an instrument collecting radiation emitted from a radioisotope injected the patient’ body. The strengths of emission are recorded by a gamma camera, which has a series of scintillation crystals, each connected to a photomultiplier tube. The crystals convert the gamma rays, emitted from the patient, to photons of light, and the photomultiplier tubes convert and amplify the photons to electrical signals. These electrical signals are then processed by a computer to generate images. The table is then moved, and the process is repeated, resulting in a series of thin slice images of the body over the region of interest (e.g. brain, breast, liver). These thin slice images can be assembled into a three dimensional representation of the patient's body Nowadays, PET scanning devices are most often used in conjunction with CT scanners, so that a more accurate image can be observed by the doctor for easier diagnosis of diseases or disorders. SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) works in a way much the same to PET. But the radioactive substances used in SPECT (Xenon-133, Technetium-99, Iodine-123) have longer decay times than those used in PET, and emit single instead of double gamma rays MRI has a more complex principle for its function; it works by creating a magnetic field so strong that the hydrogen protons in the body are forced into alignment with the magnetic field. Short bursts of radio waves are sent from the scanner into your body. The radio waves knock the protons from their position. When the burst of radio waves stops, the protons go back into position. They realign back to being in parallel with the magnetic field. As the protons realign, in a process known as relaxation, they emit tiny radio signals. A receiving device in the scanner detects these signals. The type of tissue can be interpreted from the strength of the signal emitted. Most of the hydrogen atoms in the body are in water molecules.

Swot Analysis †Wal-Mart

Strengths †¢Best positioned global retailer †¢Established business objective & philosophy that is understood organization wide †¢Firm focus on the strategy of cost leadership by offering everyday low prices (EDLP) through everyday low costs (EDLC) †¢Efficient procurement and logistics system †¢Strong and stable financial performance and positive cash flows for reinvestment in improving operations Weaknesses †¢Significant dependence on the US market to maintain strong sales performance †¢Wal-Mart’s mass market approach as a retailer creates opportunities for ‘market nichers’ to capture specific market segments which may be overlooked. Wal-Mart’s extensive range of products limits its ability to give direct attention to understanding all its customers as opposed to its more focused competitors. †¢FIFO method of accounting for inventory, in the international markets, may not effectively support the strategy of everyday l ow prices. Opportunities †¢There are opportunities to expand in countries with emerging economies †¢There are also opportunities to resuscitate growth in the US market †¢Innovations in technology present the opportunity to further integrate the value chain for increased efficiency to drive EDLC. Threats †¢The unstable economic climate in the USA will continue to negatively impact on Wal-Mart’s performance †¢Wal-Mart can lose customers to more focused competitors if they (competitors) are able to develop a value proposition greater than the simple offering of everyday low prices. †¢Wal-Mart’s global exposure exposes the organization to currency risk, political influences, and other uncertainties that can affect its operations. †¢Wal-Mart’s cost leadership strategy creates intensive price competition which poses a serious risk to profitability if operational costs are not ffectively managed. Wal-Mart is a large retailer that is keenly focused on the business philosophy of saving people money so they can live better. This philosophy drives the organization-wide quest of achieving EDLCs which are leveraged in delivering EDLPs. Based on corporate information, Wal-Mart has a total of 9700 retail units spread across 28 countries, as at Augus t 2011. This represents approximately 985 million square feet of retail space from which sales are generated. This broad network of superstores, discount stores, neighbourhood markets, suppliers, and customers are interconnected in a value delivery network fuelled by information technology. In this system, suppliers are able to track Wal-Mart’s inventory levels in real-time to ensure that products are available on time, in the right quantities, best quality, and at the lowest possible price. Simultaneously, Wal-Mart is able to track purchasing patterns, brand preferences, register customer feedback, and capture other related information for their sales and marketing programme. When it is all put together, Wal-Mart’s use of information technology empowers it to consistently deliver on its promise of everyday low prices, a reliable supply of its vast range of products, and capture an understanding of its customers and members that it serves over 200 million times per week. This, in turn, drives customer satisfaction and loyalty which is reflected in Wal-Mart’s strong financial performance compared to other global retailers. For the 2011 financial year, Wal-Mart’s sales grew by 3. 4% to US$419b and operating income grew by 6. 4% to US$25b. EPS grew by 12% to US$4. 8 and a total of US$19. 2b was paid out to shareholders through dividends or share repurchases. Between the 2009 and 2010 financial years, Wal-Mart has maintained a ROI of 19. 3% falling slightly to 19. 2% in 2011 due mainly to economic challenges within the US market. For comparison, Wal-Mart’s closest global competitor, Carrefour Group, generated a USD equivalent of app roximately $158b in sales for the 2010 financial year (latest full year results available). At the close of the second quarter of their 2011 financial year (August 31, 2011), Carrefour experienced a 2. % increase in sales at the USD equivalent of $58. 3b. However, underperformance in France, Greece, and Italy, due to struggling economies, resulted in a 22% reduction in operating income at a USD equivalent of $1. 1b. These results cements Wal-Mart’s position as the world’s largest and best positioned retailer with respect to sales revenue. On the flip side, Wal-Mart appears to be dependent on its dominance in the US market which showed a flat performance by generating US$260b in sales for the 2011 financial year, compared to US$259b in 2010. Despite expanding during the year to create more retail space, there was reduced customer traffic due to rising unemployment and a 2. 3% reduction in the income of the middle class according to the US Census Bureau. A 1% increase in the poverty rate to 15. 3% also had a negative impact on Wal-Mart’s performance and highlights the challenges within the US economy. In the international segment, the FIFO approach at inventory management and accounting may not entirely support its established strategy of everyday low prices as it does not allow for cost savings to be quickly passed on to its customers. It may also distort the true picture of the company’s financial performance. Putting it all together, the assessment of Wal-Mart’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identifies the need for a strategic approach towards achieving its objective of 4-6% growth in sales revenue for the 2012 financial year and beyond. Given its dominance in the US market, the company should strategically move to hold/defend its market position by continuing to leverage IT for EDLCs and EDLPs. Aggressive sales promotions, especially through eCommerce, should be used to improve on the flat sales performance for 2011. Wal-Mart should, however, look to the emerging economies for further growth and expansion as they show a faster rate of economic recovery and a growing middle class. China, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia are ranked in the top five on the market potential index for emerging markets with respect to market growth rates. China, India, Russia, Brazil, and Indonesia are ranked in the top five based on market size. Pending further PESTEL Analysis, these emerging markets could potentially hold the key for Wal-Mart’s future expansion.

Mass and Chemical Reactions Lab Essay

Relationships in a Chemical Reaction Lab Introduction: This lab focused on mass relationships within a chemical reaction. To understand this lab first, it is necessary to understand the reaction that is going on in the reaction. The Copper (II) chloride hydrate reacts with Aluminum to produce Aluminum chloride, copper, and water. Theoretical yield and various other forms of yield must be understood too, theoretical yield is what amount of the product you should get theoretically according to your calculations; experimental yield is the product you get after you finish the experiment. Because of error usually your experimental yield will be off from your theoretical yield. Percent yield is the efficiency of the reaction to get to the theoretical yield. Data Collection And Processing: Raw Data: Table #1 : Substance / Object and Mass Table Substance / Object| Mass (Â ± 0. 01 g)| 200mL beaker| 67. 38 Â ± 0. 01 g| 200mL beaker + Copper| 69. 39 Â ± 0. 01 g| Copper| 2. 01 Â ± 0. 01 g| 200mL beaker + Dried Copper| 68. 01 Â ± 0. 01 g| Dried Copper| 0. 63 Â ± 0. 01 g| Qualitative Data: Before the reaction, the Copper (II) Chloride hydrate is a blue crystallized substance, the Aluminum was shiny and made crinkly sounds, it has a smooth metallic feel to it. During the reaction initially when stirred the water the water turns blue. When the aluminum is placed into the hydrous CuCl? the water becomes a darker murky substance. Steam is coming out of the water and aluminum is visibly dissolving. The aluminum is also turning black and vapor is forming along the sides. Foam like red pieces are forming and dropping. As the solid turns completely red the liquid is becoming clear again and is colorless.

Hume: Morality Is Based on Sentiment

Hume: Morality is Based on Sentiment This paper will attempt to give a detailed breakdown of David Hume's take on morality, and how some of the other philosophers would critique his stance. I will first speak about why Hume believes reason and passion don't contradict each other. Then I will give Aristotle’s and Aquinas' view on this conclusion of his. Next, I will speak on how Hume argues that moral judgments aren't grounded in reason. Afterwards, I will discuss what he considers that moral judgments are founded on. Finally, I will give a critique of Hume's theory from Hobbes' perspective.Hume's take on human morality is a very interesting one indeed to contemplate. His main argument on the topic is that the morality of humans is totally derived from sentiment, and in no way has anything to do with reason. He first defines sentiment and reason. He says that the former refers to passions such as emotions, feelings, appetites and desires. Then he also goes on to categorize the passions as being either calm or violent. And according to him, it is our passions that lead us to action. He also states that passions can neither be true nor false, they're â€Å"original existences† (Hume 42 column 2 paragraph 3).Then he defines reason as, what we can say, are ruminations of the mind, which includes beliefs, thoughts, conclusions of arguments, etc, and declares that these can be true or false. It is with these definitions in mind that Hume goes on to make the statement that passion and reason cannot oppose each other. Because passions are original existences, they are neither reasonable nor unreasonable though they are the dominators of our actions. Reason, however, can be put to true/false evaluations and are actually derived from our passions.Reason cannot contradict passion because this would be an internal disagreement of ideas, which are considered as copies of the object which they represent, i. e. the particular passion. He states though that a pass ion can be called unreasonable if it is founded upon a false supposition or chooses insufficient means for the required end (Hume 43 column 2 paragraph 2), but when one perceives that the supposition is false or the means are insufficient, then the passion yields to reason without any opposition whatsoever (Hume 43 column 2 paragraph 2).This is because willing an action follows upon the supposition that the action brings about a proposed effect, but as soon as it's found that this supposition is not true there is no more desire to will that action. He also says that reason can have an indirect impact on passion. For example, when one considers jealousy, it can be seen that it’s a passion that’s based in human belief. Aristotle’s view is based on a system of virtues of which, if they’re done well, would cause one to lead a happy life. He also states that there are actually two categories of virtues: those that are intellectual and those which are moral.Int ellectual virtues refer to those characteristics that lead one to think or reason well, and demands experience and time. Moral virtues, on the other hand, are those characteristics that perfect our character and are acquired through habit (Aristotle 54 column 1 paragraph 4). These habits are the basis of actions, thus determining what one does in particular situations. Taking a look at how Hume’s actions derived from sentiment can be compared with Aristotle’s moral virtues that come through habit, the parallels in the theories can be immediately seen.The same can be said about Aristotle’s intellectual virtues bettering one’s thinking when compared with Hume’s reason being composed of ideas, beliefs and the like. Hume’s definitions of sentiment and reason can be seen as analogous to Aristotle’s virtues. Seeing that these two classes of virtues too function in wholly different ways to Aristotle, being that they target different aspects of the human, he would agree with Hume’s view that passion cannot oppose reason.The same can be said for Aquinas as was said for Aristotle. Aquinas' statement â€Å"Whatever a human being seeks, it seeks under the aspect of the good and if it does not seek it as its perfect good, which is its ultimate end, it must seek it as tending to that perfect good, since any beginning is ordered to its culmination† (McInerny 200 paragraph 3) can be interpreted to mean that all the things attracting the human will are perceived as being good.He then goes on to say that there is a distinction between the thing sought, which would be the trigger of Hume’s passion, and the reason for seeking it, which would be the available facts leading to the belief that the object is worth being sought. Here is where he can be compared to Hume who says that passions are original existences that cannot conflict with reason, which is based in facts as known by the human.Aquinas also states th at humans can be mistaken about the good in a particular instance of action, but if a person is enlightened that â€Å"not-A rather than A† contributes to their happiness, they â€Å"have the same reason for doing not-A† that they thought they had for doing â€Å"A† (McInerny 201 paragraph 4). He is saying here that whenever the human discovers that something sought for happiness (and thus is thought to be morally good) doesn’t fulfill the requirement, the human then has the same reason now for not seeking that thing anymore, whether it be a particular action or object.This supplements Hume’s theory of the only situations where he thinks passions can be thought of as â€Å"unreasonable†, though said passions would immediately yield to reason when the supposition is perceived to be false (Hume 43 column 2 paragraph 2). Aquinas clarifies this thinking even further when he says an act is not called rational because it’s an act of reason, but because it (the action) can be influenced by reason (McInerny 203 paragraph 1).Unlike many other philosophers, especially the classic ones, Hume disputes the claim that morality is founded on reason. He proposes this isn’t possible since â€Å"reason is the discovery of truth or falsehood†, which is related to ideas and matters of fact (Hume 44 column 1 paragraph 1). Since passions, volitions and actions are original facts and realities which are complete in themselves, and thus cannot reference each other, â€Å"it is impossible [for them to] be either contrary or conformable to reason†.Since our actions, which can be evaluated as being morally laudable or blamable, cannot be produced or prevented by reason, moral judgments cannot be derived from reason. To determine what Hume believes morality is derived from, there is a need to define facts and values, and to see how these fit into the spectrum of his conclusion. Facts are things known and can be describ ed. However, values are subjective feelings about the facts. So there is a huge difference between what each of them refers to.Using these definitions, Hume argues that there are no facts about good/evil and right/wrong. No matter how you may examine a morally wrong action, at no time can you ever find a matter of fact which you call vice. As long as you consider the object itself, you will never find that which is called vice. It is only when you reflect within that you find a â€Å"sentiment of disapprobation, which arises in you, towards this action†. That thing which arises in you is a fact, but it is an object of feeling, not reason (Hume 44 column 1 paragraph 3).Basically, Hume is saying that there is no way to say that an action willed by someone can be called factual, since there is nothing true or false about it, but it is the way someone feels about that action within themselves that gives the action moral value. So it can be seen how Hume concludes moral right/wron g is not deducted from reason, but how one feels about things. And human nature comes equipped with the basic sentiments of sympathy or benevolence toward humankind in general, and this is what leads us in making moral judgments.Hobbes would completely disagree with Hume on his theory that morality is based in sentiment. Just looking at the title of his work tells us that he believes morality is completely based on reason. He believes that humans are inherently selfish creatures and wouldn’t be much more than the lower animals if there was no society. He reasons that humans typically have a natural right to everything, even other humans, if they discern it that thing a means of advancing their own survival.He sees humans as existing in a state of nature where there is only a â€Å"war of everyone against everyone† (Hobbes 5 column 1 paragraph 1) arising from competition, fear and vanity. He posits that in this war, the concepts of right or wrong, justice or injustice, etc. have no place (Hobbes 4 column 1 paragraph 4), and hence there is no morality. However, they need to make peace with each other in an attempt to preserve their own lives. So humans force themselves to make covenants with each other to give up their fundamental right to all things for this security.Justice is derived from these covenants, and one is said to be unjust when they fail to â€Å"perform their covenants made† (Hobbes 5 column 2 paragraph 3). But there is also no trust among humans, since there is no way to be certain that the others will adhere to their agreement, so a further step is taken to establish what is called a commonwealth, in order to provide a â€Å"coercive power† that will â€Å"compel men equally to the performance of their covenants† through the fear of punishment worse than any benefit they get by breaking the covenant.It is through this sequence of occurrences that Hobbes arrives at his natural laws which are summed as â€Å"doi ng to others, as we would be done to you† (Hobbes 6 column 2 paragraph 3) which can be seen as morality. Thus, Hobbes would say instead that morality comes from the formation of covenants and commonwealth, and not sentiment as Hume says. Works Cited Aristotle. â€Å"Nicomachean Ethics† John Arthur and Steven Scalet. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy.Hobbes, Thomas. â€Å"Leviathan: Morality as Rational Advantage. † John Arthur and Steven Scalet. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy. Hume, David. â€Å"Morality is Based on Sentiment. † John Arthur and Steven Scalet. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy. McInerny, Ralph. â€Å"Ethics. † The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas. pages 200-206.